Can we denote of a specific scientific ethics in anthropology that is distinct from what is generally referred to as ethics in other scientific fields and emphasized by many scholars? Should anthropology be considered a more ethical science than other human sciences—or at least one that is more deeply entangled with ethical concerns? If we examine the historical formation of this discipline, especially the development of its academic associations and the foundational principles they were built upon, as well as the early debates surrounding the nature of anthropological research, we are inevitably led to answer these questions in the affirmative—though certainly such an answer requires further elaboration and precision.
One of the oldest and most reputable anthropological associations today is the American Anthropological Association (AAA), which has more than eleven thousand members across its numerous and diverse sub fields. The association has also successfully attracted a significant number of anthropologists from around the world to join its ranks. Among the most foundational documents produced by this organization is its Code of Ethics, the most recent version of which was ratified in 1998. This code explicitly addresses the specific ethical issues anthropologists face in their research, teaching, and applied work. However, before turning to some of the key points in this code, it is important to consider the topic from a different angle.
If we begin with the question of why anthropology, more than other social sciences, requires such ethical codes and guidelines, we must immediately turn our attention to two key domains: methodology and the content of research. The methodology of anthropology is highly distinctive and sets it apart from other disciplines in the humanities and social sciences. An anthropologist must, by necessity, establish an unusually close relationship with the subjects of their study—enter into the lives of the people, live among them, and develop a degree of intimacy far beyond what is typical in conventional academic research.
Throughout the research process, anthropologists interact with numerous informants who share with them a wide range of personal insights about their own lives and those of others. Many of these accounts are private and are shared as confidential information. These details may involve sensitive ethical and emotional issues—friendships and rivalries, jealousy and resentment, and deeply personal experiences. It is not uncommon for anthropologists to encounter inaccurate statements or even deliberately false accounts provided by informants.
At times, the anthropologist may witness behaviors, statements, or relationships that are ethically troubling—or even intolerable—according to their personal moral framework. In such situations, what kind of reaction should be expected from the anthropologist? Is it reasonable to demand that they completely set aside their own ethical principles and subjective values? Is such detachment even possible?
Even if the anthropologist prioritizes the objectives and methodological requirements of their research, how can they ethically justify the potential use—or misuse—of their work by individuals or institutions directly or indirectly connected to it? What should be the nature of the relationship between the anthropologist and their employer or sponsors? What is the ultimate purpose of anthropological research? Should anthropologists remain more loyal to those funding and commissioning their work, or to the people they study? Furthermore, how should an anthropologist ethically and professionally respond to the work of colleagues or any other research conducted in the fields with which they are familiar?
It is precisely in response to these endless questions that the Code of Ethics for anthropological researchers has been formulated. This code serves as a guiding framework—a kind of moral compass—for anthropologists, offering them a clearer path and greater peace of mind as they carry out their research.Let us now examine the Code of Ethics of the American Anthropological Association and consider the key issues it emphasizes.
This code, above all, emphasizes the relationship between the researcher and the community under study. No research, under any circumstance or for any purpose, can justify causing harm—whether immediate or in the future—to the people being studied. In other words, no group of people—especially without their informed and explicit consent—may be sacrificed for goals from which they may never benefit. Therefore, in any study, the anthropologist must first and foremost ensure that the results of their work are not used to violate the moral, familial, personal, or communal boundaries, nor to compromise the safety, dignity, or honor of the individuals and groups under study.
From an anthropological perspective, respecting the boundaries and dignity of communities takes precedence over the mere production of abstract or generalized knowledge. In this light, the ethical code even obliges anthropologists to extend this principle to non-human life and the natural environment. The unique understanding anthropologists possess of ecosystems and environmental systems should make them deeply concerned and ethically engaged with the condition and fate of all components of these ecosystems—not just human beings.
In general, the consent of those being studied is one of the most essential ethical requirements of anthropological research. This naturally demands that the people involved understand the nature of the research as much as possible, including its goals and main themes.Moreover, when we speak of participants’ understanding of the research, this does not refer only to the beginning or the initiation of a project. Rather, it is a continuous responsibility: the project must be presented to the community as an ongoing process, and the researcher must ensure that the participants remain informed and aware of its aims and developments throughout its duration.
Of course, it should not be overlooked that this same transparency must also apply to the other party involved in the project: the sponsors or employers. There is no doubt that any sponsor pursues specific interests and objectives when initiating a research project.The anthropologist must first clearly identify these goals and ensure that they do not conflict with their ethical code. Furthermore, throughout the entire duration of the project, the anthropologist is responsible for maintaining transparency in their work towards the sponsors, ensuring that the research process is presented clearly and leaves no room for doubt, misunderstanding, or misinterpretation.
Any kind of exploitation—and consequently misuse—of the people being studied must be strictly avoided. It should be noted that establishing friendly and intimate relationships with the research subjects creates conditions that significantly increase the risk of such exploitation. In many cases, the researcher may unwittingly become part of these cycles, which naturally calls for heightened ethical vigilance and concern.
As mentioned, ethical and human conflicts between the researcher and the research subjects are entirely foreseeable; therefore, it is advisable that the anthropologist prepares themselves to face such conflicts. In doing so, priority should naturally be given to preserving the individual and collective interests and balance of the subjects under study.
When the research concludes, the ethical code mandates that the researcher, to the extent permitted by the sponsors and accepted by themselves, disseminate the results through scientific channels and make them available to other researchers for proper use. Any monopolization in this regard is indefensible and violates anthropological ethics. Furthermore, the anthropologist must always remember that the primary right to use and apply these results undoubtedly belongs to the people studied. Therefore, the researcher must dedicate all efforts to ensuring that these findings lead to positive change or help preserve and sustain the traditions and valuable heritage of those communities. Anthropology also carries an ethical responsibility to prevent and combat the misuse of its research.
Therefore, the anthropologist must remain fully vigilant in this regard and, while monitoring the fate of their research subjects, prevent any negative exploitation or harm to the people resulting from their studies. Sometimes, this responsibility extends to other research conducted in the same field. For example, if anthropological or other related studies yield conclusions that, based on the researcher’s knowledge and understanding, are detrimental to the people, or if the government or private sector is undertaking actions or planning projects in that area which the researcher deems harmful, professional ethics require that the anthropologist not remain silent but use their knowledge and experience gained in the field to expose and prevent such harmful practices.
In conclusion and briefly, due to the unique nature of their research, the anthropologist becomes so deeply connected with the people they study that they may never truly separate from them or their fate. Consequently, their research carries with it a responsibility and human solidarity that is often much heavier than the initial burden of conducting the anthropological study itself.
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Source:
The original Persian article titled “Anthropological Ethics” was authored by Nasser Fakouhi and is available on his official website. This article discusses the ethical principles and responsibilities inherent to anthropological research, focusing on the complex relationship between researchers and the communities they study. The full text can be accessed at:
Note: The English translation of the article was produced using artificial intelligence tools, translating the text from Persian to English.05/07/2025
